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Intrinsic factor, produced by parietal cells in the stomach lining, binds to free b12 and enables absorption in the terminal ileum

When serum B12 results are equivocal or clinical suspicion remains high despite normal B12 levels, additional tests may be requested: Methylmalonic acid (MMA) : Elevated levels indicate functional B12 deficiency at the cellular level, though availability may be limited in primary care and levels can be elevated in renal impairment Homocysteine : Also elevated in B12 deficiency, though less specific and also affected by renal function Intrinsic factor antibodies : To investigate pernicious anaemia, the most common cause of B12 deficiency in the UK Anti-parietal cell antibodies : May be tested if pernicious anaemia is suspected but intrinsic factor antibodies are negative Identifying the underlying cause is crucial for appropriate management

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Annu Rev Nutr 1992

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Step 3: Subscribe to your personalized treatment plan, including B12 shots After your doctor prescribes TRT, B12 injections, or a combination of the two, youll subscribe to a personalized treatment plan