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To better understand biofilm development and persistence in chronic wounds, Figure 2 illustrates the stages of the biofilm life cycle, including adhesion, microcolony formation, maturation, and dispersion, as well as host immune responses such as neutrophil recruitment, M1/M2 macrophage polarization, and cytokine signaling (e.g., interleukin-1 beta [IL-1], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-], interleukin-6 [IL-6], interleukin-8 [IL-8], interleukin-12 [IL-12]), which collectively contribute to immune evasion and chronic infection [40-43]

In addition, Akt phosphorylates Bcl2 to promote cell survival and inactivates p27 and Bad to inhibit cell cycle arrest and apoptosis

The reaction was halted on ice, and free proline was extracted using toluene in a separating funnel, with optical density measured at 520 nm

By suppressing HDAC activity, SCFAs elevate histone acetylation levels, leading to chromatin decondensation and relaxation [215]

Author contributions AD: Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing original draft

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