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Amino acid metabolism is a fundamental biological process that not only provides building blocks for protein synthesis, but also supports various cellular functions, including redox homeostasis, energy production, and epigenetic regulation [7,8,9]

During gallbladder storage, bile becomes concentrated because sodium ions are actively absorbed in exchange for protons, and bile acids, as the major anions, are too large to exit across the gallbladder epithelial tight junctions ( Fig

Ferroptosis is a novel form of PCD, which exhibits several pathophysiological features reminiscent of those seen in SLE, including intracellular iron accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, lipid metabolism disorders, and regulation by DAMPs ( Table 1 )

It participates in detoxification reactions and helps manage oxidative byproducts created during normal metabolism

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While apoptosis plays a protective role in clearing infected cells in a controlled manner, its dysregulation can lead to immune overactivation, exacerbating inflammation and tissue damage