glutaredoxin glutathione disulfide and thioredoxin system Schematic overview of the thioredoxin

(2) if the main mechanism of deficiency is enzyme instability, cells other than erythrocytes may compensate by increased biosynthesis

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[DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 47.Numakawa T, Matsumoto T, Numakawa Y, et al

10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115245 7 AlsaudM

These observations imply that direct nose-to-brain transport is responsible for the elevated exendin-4 levels in the brain following intranasal coadministration of L-penetratin/exendin-4

Let's explore the pros and cons of each approach