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The main autophagy inducers are starvation and lack of growth factors which, through inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling, then trigger ULK1 complex (ULK1-ATG13-FIP200-ATG101) formation at Atg9-containing membranes and activation of the class 3 phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (PI(3)K) complex (Jung et al., 2010)

Zukin SR, Zukin RS (1979)

The brain is particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage due to its high oxygen consumption, lipidrich content, and relatively low antioxidant capacity (Butterfield and Halliwell 2019)

[DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 100.Decker-Baumann C., Buhl K., Frohmller S., von Herbay A., Dueck M., Schlag P.M

doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.02.031

Glutamate transporters: Taking up glutamate from the synapse Glutamate transporters regulate how much glutamate is available in the synapse, thereby controlling the level of extracellular glutamate that can activate nearby neurons