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This is understood to happen via several mechanisms: Increasing stomach acid levels Reduction in the protective mucus lining the digestive tract Increasing bile salt reflux rate Increasing gastric bile salt concentration Not only do smoking and nicotine and nicotine increase the risk of developing an ulcer, but they also increase the ulcer-causing ability of factors that include: H

PMID 24569565

Immune cells are then further recruited to contribute to tissue inflammation

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